The Last Act of the Napoleonic Wars: Approving the End of the Allied Occupation of France After the Napoleonic Wars, King George IV Consents to a State’s Accession to the Convention of Aix-la-Chapelle, Which Ended That Occupation

It also permits the free city of Frankfort to join the European community established by the Convention

The Napoleonic Wars, which lasted well over two decades, completely disrupted Europe. By its close, France, led by Napoleon, had conquered (at one time or another) much of the continent, and spread its influence pervasively throughout. Virtually no aspect of life in Europe was unaffected. On March 31, 1814, the Allied forces entered Paris, compelling Napoleon to abdicate. The Treaty of Paris, signed in May of that year, ended the state of war. But this was just the start. The victorious European powers determined to reestablish, as far as possible, the order and borders in force when the wars started in 1792, and to resolve the many other problems that had arisen during revolution and war. They called the Congress of Vienna, which convened on September 27, 1814 and concluded with the Treaty of Vienna being signed on June 9, 1815.

But their plans were foiled even as they were finishing them. On February 26, 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba, slipped past interception by a British ship, and returned to France. Immediately, people and troops rallied to the returned Emperor. This new threat shocked the negotiators at Vienna and indeed all of Europe. But this was Napoleon’s last gasp, and on June 18, 1815, nine days after the treaty was signed in Vienna, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.

The Treaty of Vienna system, the political and legal order of Europe after the fall of Napoleonic France, was then instituted. It rested on two main pillars. The leading principle in the territorial settlement that was reached at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 was the restoration of the balance of power. The principle was invoked to contain France by strengthening its neighbors to the east—in Italy and Germany—and to the north—the United Kingdom and the Netherlands—and to reorganize the defunct Holy Roman Empire into a confederation of just under 40 states led by Austria and Prussia. The other pillar, which became known as the ‘Concert of Europe’, was an agreement between the four leading powers that had brought Napoleon Bonaparte to his knees—Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia—to sustain their alliance against France, halt a future return of Napoleon to power, protect the restored Bourbon dynasty against any new revolutions, and jointly assume responsibility for the territorial status quo and the peace of Europe. The concord of these four nations, agreed to in November 1815, was called the Quadruple Alliance. The members agreed to the idea of holding regular meetings among the four powers to discuss their common interests and for the consideration of the measures that would be of the greatest benefit for the repose and prosperity of nations, and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe. Though France was now led by King Louis XVIII, an ostensible ally, it was left out of this conglomerate.

France was not pleased about that, and had another bone of contention. Two days after Waterloo, in the field, British Commander the Duke of Wellington issued an order: “As the army is about to enter the French territory, the troops of the nations which are at present under the command of Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington, are desired to recollect that their respective Sovereigns are the Allies of His Majesty the King of France, and that France ought, therefore to be treated as a friendly country.” Wellington insisted that in the upcoming occupation of France, nothing should be taken either by officers or soldiers, for which payment had not been made. During the subsequent occupation of France in the summer of 1815, this order was followed mostly in the breach. Within two weeks of Waterloo, some 150,000 British and Prussian troops had arrived in Paris, bivouacking in the Bois de Boulogne and on the Champs-Elysées. Over the next two months, soldiers from Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and most of the rest of Europe, including Denmark, Holland, the German states, Piedmont, and Spain, continued to pour into France. By September, two-thirds of the country was occupied by 1.2 million troops, the largest force gathered anywhere to that date. As they invaded, Allied troops ransacked the country, pillaging food and forage, appropriating valuables including artworks, destroying fields and forests, seizing weapons, raiding treasuries, and levying contributions. Allied leaders feared that such pillaging threatened a permanent peace.

To resolve this and the position of France with relation to the Quadruple Alliance, the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was held in the autumn of 1818, and was attended by Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and this time, France. The purpose was to decide upon the withdrawal of the army of occupation from France and renegotiate the reparations France would owe to the Allies. At this Congress, in person, were Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Kaiser Francis I of Austria, King Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia, and Great Britain’s Viscount Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington. The Duc de Richelieu, who was trusted by the Quadruple Alliance, represented France. The sessions produced an amicable settlement on a Convention signed on October 9, 1818, whereby France refinanced its reparations debt, and the Allies would withdraw all of their troops from France. The occupation was formally terminated at the conference, the withdrawals commenced, and by November 30 the evacuation was complete. The Duc de Richelieu succeeded in having France admitted as a full discussion partner in the European congress system and France’s position as a European power was restored. The Congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of historical importance as marking the highest point reached during the 19th century in the attempt to govern Europe by an international organization of the powers. Another comparable effort would not be made until 1945, with the United Nations, or perhaps more a propos, the founding of the European Union in 1993.

It took a few years to complete the complement of nations signatory, and the required paperwork. We offer one of the original documents allowing a state to accede to the Convention and become a part of the Concord of Europe.

This state was the free city of Frankfort. It passed a resolution on October 28, 1818: “We the Burgomasters of the Senate of the free city of Frankfort having been graciously invited by His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and of Ireland to accede to the Convention concluded at Aix la Chapelle October 9, 1818 between the said Majesty…. and their Imperial and Royal Majesties the Emperor of Austria, King of Prussia, and the Emperor of the Russians on one side and his Majesty the King of France and of Navarre on the other, concerning the evacuation of the French Territory, at the end of the third year of military occupation, stipulated by Article 5 of the Treaty of November 20, 1815 [establishing the Quadruple Alliance]. We, having received communication of the said Convention of October 9, accede with respect, by the present act, to the said Convention…. ”

After working its way through channels, the British approved their accession. Document Signed by King George IV, 5 pages, Palace of Carlton House, London, December 31, 1820, being the Warrant for affixing the Great Seal to the United Kingdom to the ratification of an Act of Acceptance of the Accession. Although other nations needed to give their approval, the approval of the Britain was by far the most consequential. “Our Will and Pleasure is that you forthwith cause the Great Seal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to be affixed to an Instrument bearing date with these presents (a copy whereof is hereto annexed) containing Our Acceptance on the part of the Burgomasters and Senate of the Free City of Frankfort, to a Convention concluded at Aix-de-Chapelle on the ninth day of October 1818, for the evacuation of the French Territory by the Allied troops. And for so doing, this shall be your Warrant. Given at Carlton Palace the thirty first day of December 1820.” It is also signed by Castlereagh, who recites that this document is “By His Majesty’s command.”

Following this the document recites the Frankfort resolution in French, and then states in English: “George the Fourth, by the grace of God King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, King of Hanover, etc. etc. etc. To all and singular to whom these presents shall come, Greeting! Whereas the Burgomasters and Senate of the Free City of Frankfort, by an act agreed at Frankfort on the twenty eighth day of October in the year of Our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighteen, have acceded to the Convention concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle on the ninth day of the same month for the evacuation of the French Territory by the Allied troops, which act of accession is, word for word, as follows: We having seen and considered the Act of Accession aforesaid, have approved and accepted the same, as we do by these presents approve and accept, for ourselves, our heirs, and successors, all and singular, the things which are contained and expressed in said Act of Accession. For the greater testimony and validity of all which, we have caused the Great Seal of Our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to be affixed to this act.”

The occupation of France was one of the largest, if not the largest, in history up to World War II. We have never before seen a document relating to the Convention of Aix-la-Chapelle signed by the chief party to the accord.